From Leopold to Lithium: A History of Mining in the DRC

To understand mining in the DRC today, you must understand its past. The country’s mineral wealth has been both a blessing and a curse — the engine of economic potential and the cause of exploitation, conflict, and foreign intervention. This is that story.

The Colonial Era (1885-1960)

Leopold’s Congo Free State (1885-1908)

King Leopold II of Belgium claimed the Congo as his personal property in 1885. While initially focused on ivory and rubber, mineral exploration soon revealed vast deposits of copper, gold, diamonds, and tin in the Katanga region (now Haut-Katanga and Lualaba provinces).

Leopold’s regime was defined by forced labor, violence, and extraction without reinvestment. An estimated 10 million Congolese died during this period.

Belgian Congo (1908-1960)

When the Belgian state took over from Leopold in 1908, mining became more institutionalized. Union Minière du Haut-Katanga (UMHK) was founded in 1906 and became one of the world’s largest mining companies, producing copper, cobalt, uranium, and other minerals.

Key milestones of this era:

• 1915: UMHK begins large-scale copper production in Katanga
• 1922: The DRC becomes the world’s leading diamond producer
• 1940s: Congolese uranium from the Shinkolobwe mine is used in the Manhattan Project — the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• 1950s: The Congo produces 60% of the world’s industrial diamonds and is a top copper and cobalt exporter

The wealth flowed almost entirely to Belgium. Mining infrastructure was built to extract, not to develop.

Independence and Nationalization (1960-1990)

The Turbulent 1960s

Independence on June 30, 1960 was followed immediately by crisis. Katanga province — the mining heartland — attempted secession under Moïse Tshombe, backed by Belgian mining interests. The secession lasted until 1963 and demonstrated how tightly mining and politics were intertwined.

Mobutu and Zairianization

When Mobutu Sese Seko took power in 1965, he renamed the country Zaïre and embarked on “Zairianization” — the nationalization of foreign-owned enterprises. In 1966, UMHK was nationalized and became Gécamines (Générale des Carrières et des Mines).

Gécamines reached its peak in the 1980s:

• Peak production: 476,000 tonnes of copper (1988)
• Workforce: Over 30,000 employees
• Revenue: Gécamines accounted for up to 70% of government revenue

But corruption, mismanagement, and lack of reinvestment took their toll. By the late 1990s, production had collapsed to under 30,000 tonnes — a 94% decline.

The Wars and the Mining Code (1996-2006)

The First (1996-97) and Second (1998-2003) Congo Wars devastated the country and its mining sector. Conflict minerals — particularly coltan, tin, tungsten, and gold — fueled armed groups in the east, while industrial mining in Katanga ground to a halt.

In 2002, the DRC enacted its first modern Mining Code, designed to attract international investment through tax incentives, clear licensing procedures, and investment protection. It worked: a wave of foreign mining companies entered the country.

The Modern Era (2006-Present)

The Rise of Chinese Investment

China’s entry transformed the sector. The landmark Sicomines deal (2007) — often called “minerals for infrastructure” — gave a Chinese consortium mining rights in exchange for building roads, hospitals, and railways. The deal has since been renegotiated multiple times, most recently channeling $5.5 billion in infrastructure spending between 2024 and 2040.

By 2025, Chinese companies own or hold stakes in 15 of the largest copper and cobalt mines in the DRC. CMOC (formerly China Molybdenum) operates the massive Tenke Fungurume mine and announced a $1.08 billion expansion of the Kisanfu copper mine in October 2025.

The 2018 Mining Code Revision

The government revised the Mining Code in 2018, over fierce industry opposition:

• Strategic minerals tax rate increased to 10% (from 2-3.5%)
• Stronger local ownership requirements
• Reduced tax stability guarantees
• Greater state participation rights

The Battery Revolution

The electric vehicle revolution has placed the DRC at the center of the global economy. The country’s cobalt — essential for lithium-ion batteries — now commands strategic geopolitical significance. In December 2025, the DRC signed a Strategic Partnership Agreement with the United States granting preferential access to critical minerals.

Rio Tinto began talks in March 2025 to develop a new lithium deposit. Ivanhoe Mines’ Kamoa-Kakula operation produced 388,838 tonnes of copper in 2025, with a state-of-the-art smelter producing 99.7%-pure copper anode.

Gecamines Today

In February 2026, President Tshisekedi installed new leadership at Gecamines — Deogratias Ngele Masudi as chairman and Baraka Kabemba as CEO — signaling a push to revitalize the state mining company for a new era.

Lessons from History

The DRC’s mining history teaches several lessons that remain relevant today:

1. Resource wealth without governance is a curse — institutions matter more than deposits
2. Foreign investment must be balanced with local benefit — the colonial extraction model persists in new forms
3. Diversification is essential — dependence on a single commodity (copper in the 1980s, cobalt today) creates vulnerability
4. Human capital is the real resource — the miners, engineers, and communities are what make the industry work

For anyone building a career in DRC mining, understanding this history isn’t optional. It’s the context that shapes every deal, every regulation, and every relationship in the sector.